1. Alter, Joseph S. 1999. "Heaps of health, metaphysical fitness: Ayurveda and the ontology of good health in medical anthropology". Current Anthropology. 40 (Suppl): S43-S66.
This article addresses the idea of how to properly define “good health” from a medical viewpoint. Overall fitness is the main concern instead of just focusing on specific diseases and illnesses, the emphasis is a holistic approach to health. Promoting healthy proactive lifestyles and well being as a way of life. Is “good health” when one is not experiencing an illness? It is extremely hard to define “good health” in one universal way. Can Western and Traditional medicines agree upon one definition? It can be agreed upon that most medicine is remedial and that is the base for the definition of “good health”. The body can be viewed in many ways symbolically, emotionally, and physically and because of this there can be many ways to interpret. Alter has studied for the past 15 years to examine Ayurveda as a mode of drastic self-improvement. Every person in the world experience health differently, and by defining “good health” it can limit people. One issue with Ayurvedic medicine is the intense daily schedule to promote well being, however if one strays from this path “good health” cannot be maintained. Should being in “good health” be necessary to be cured? However, does being cured give you “good health”? This idea is very puzzling and it makes it even harder to find a definition that encompasses all parts of health. This article focuses on living a balanced life and making sure to eat and sleep properly and how beneficial to promote “good health”, but Ayurveda focuses on different principles for “good health”. Some of Ayurveda’s principles are pathogenic such as regular smoking and taking snuff, however balancing all these practices works toward “good health”. The conclusions presented state that physical fitness may be important for “good health”, but do not fit with Ayurvedic medicine. Ayurveda focuses on linkages to medical domains to define “good health”.
2. Athavale, V. B. 2001. Pathogenesis in ayurveda = Samprapti. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. 1-13.
Pathogenesis in Ayurveda is, in essence, a matter of imbalance in one’s life. Specifically, the three doshas, tissues, and waste products of the body must be in harmony to create good health for any individual. The three doshas balance differently for each person, but one universal in Ayurvedic principles is that health is happiness, and conversely, disease is sorrow. The origins of disease, held by Ayurvedic philosophy, are that man’s vitality and knowledge was equal to that of God’s in the beginning of time. Much like Adam and Eve, the sages at the beginning of time enjoyed a life of unlimited longevity in a paradise of sorts, devoid of diseases and unhappiness of any sort. However, legend holds that those who were financially blessed began to eat more, drink more, and generally their habits gave way to a spirit of acquisition, and thus greed was born. This nature of overindulgence (or under-indulgence) in any one thing upset the balance necessary for the happy, healthful lives that were led previously, and the bodies of humans began to fail as a result. Successive generations enjoyed shorter life spans, culture gave way to characteristics of lust, hatred, cruelty, fear, and the like, and virtue was greatly deprived. It is thus that deviating from the path of righteousness gave rise to the beginnings of disease, and as such, the treatment of diseases necessitates a wide variety of cures (for the mind, the soul, the body, and more). The chapter goes further on to provide a basic classification of diseases, including: diseases of the body and mind, Nija and Agantu diseases (arise from ignoring one’s conscious), and Ekadoshaja, Dvandvaja, and Sannipatika diseases (according to the number of doshas affected).
3. Athavale, V. B. 2001. Pathogenesis in ayurveda = Samprapti. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. 14-37.
This chapter of the book gives a comprehensive account of the many etiological factors influencing disease in Ayurveda. Sannikrishtai and Viprakrishta include factors (such as day, season, diet, etc.) that increase the doshas directly, essentially immediate causes. Pradhanika and Vyabhichari refer to illnesses resulting from poisoning of any kind. Bahyahetu and Antarhetu refer to external or environmental causes of disease, which cause imbalances of dhatus (tissues), doshas, or malas (waste products). While Ayurveda generally focuses on balance of the three doshas for restoring health, it has also adapted well to modern theories of disease, and so has incorporated principles of chromosomal and genetic factors (Bijabhagavayava Dushti) and some aspects of germ theory. Constutitional factors (Doshaprakriti) involve an individual’s particular constitution regarding the three doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. If one’s constitution contains all three doshas, they are generally regarded as healthy; however, the majority of the population has a major imbalance of these three, and thus belongs to the category of a diseased constitution. There are many factors that increase various doshas (Dosha Vriddhi Karanani), including diet, activities, psychological factors, medicines, age, and more. In Prajnaparadha, the root cause of disease is held to be from disregarding one’s own conscience, or taking the wrong path regardless of known consequences. Some examples included in this category are: suppressing natural urges, excessive indulgences, rude behavior, disrespecting elderly or teachers, deviating from the righteous path, and becoming angry, jealous, frightful, or greedy and acting accordingly. In essence, this category deals with the lack of control over one’s desires and actions. Environmental factors (Kalakrita Karanarni) are very important to Ayurvedic philosophy, as man exists in the context of his environment and must interact with it on a daily basis. For this reason, much attention is paid to time and season, which greatly affect the doshas.
4. Banerjee, Madhulika. 2002. "SPECIAL ARTICLES - Public Policy and Ayurveda: Modernising a Great Tradition". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (12): 1136.
The question that is addressed throughout Banerjee’s article is what is the best policy for the modern Indian society? Should a combination of Ayurvedic and Western medicine be complied into a universal policy, or should they be two different entities? The modernization of Ayurveda continues to be the focus of India and their people; they are working to promote its usefulness for the body, health and disease. The Nehruvian vision focused on modernity and how by using Western medicine India could become very powerful in the medical realm. They want India to reach their full potential and if that means incorporating new medicinal techniques then they want to do so. The Nehruvian’s want to promote the image that India is a developed nation that continues to grow technologically. When combining Western and Ayurvedic medicine the issue of blending the traditions and beliefs of both structures arises. Can modern rituals and the customs of the past work together to provide holistic care? The Health Survey and Development Committee was created to survey the current views of the health system. Then the Chopra Committee was formed and its focus was to leave behind the colonial traditions and to move towards Western medicine. After these committees were created their data was presented and showed that science is science. Whether one focuses on Western medicine or Traditional, they both have benefits and by integrating them one creates a broad variety of treatments to cure people. In conclusion, Western and Traditional medicine are two different entities and they are able to compliment each other. Finding a happy medium between the two is hard and integrating the traditions of the past with the modern technology is a challenge that is being faced every day. India does not have all the answers, but they are working toward a policy that takes care of all their citizens by providing both Western and Ayurvedic or Traditional medicine.
5. Dash, Bhagwan. 1992. Massage therapy in ayurveda. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co
Bhagwan Dash says a healthy person is only one with his mind, sense organs, and soul in a state of perfect equilibrium to endow happiness. The specific attributes of ayurveda are that it prevents and corrects aging process, helps a person overcome fatigue because of routine hard work in life, prevents and corrects disorders caused by the affliction of the nervous system, promotes eyesight, helps nourishment of the body, promotes longevity of an individual, helps the individual to get sleep, and promotes sturdiness of the individual. Pages 21-24 lists and describes the ailments cured by massage. Dash compares the body to a leather bag; it gets worn out quickly if it is used regularly, but greasing it will make it last longer. It is recommended to massage almost daily before bathing, so as to wash away the oils, and wait one hour after the massage to bathe. Some specific locations to focus the massaging are the head are the soles of the feet. The head is the most important organ in the body because all the sense organs are located in it. Massaging our head provides nourishment to all these senses and promotes their normal and natural functions. Some attributes of head massages are that it prevents and cures headache, hair-fall, premature graying and baldness, makes hair long, soft and glossy, and prevents and cures refraction errors of the eyes, promotes complexion and endows a person with sound sleep. One should massage the soles of their feet before going to bed, which will prevent and cure dryness, numbness, roughness, fatigue, lack of sensation and cracking in the soles, promote strength for walking and running, and promote eyesight and hearing, as the soles are very closely connected with the eyes and ears.
6. Engler, Steven. 2003. ""SCIENCE" VS. "RELIGION" IN CLASSICAL AYURVEDA.". Numen: International Review for the History of Religions. 50 (4).
Science vs. religion is a controversial topic that is addressed throughout Engler’s article; he specifically relates the issue to Ayurveda. The scientific community believes that the roots of Ayurveda are scientific and although people have accused Ayurveda of having a religious origin, many stick with the idea that it is firmly rooted in science. The article is broken into many parts that explore the depths of the issue at hand and if the argument is really about whether Ayurveda was rooted in science or religion or if the real question at hand is if Ayurveda came from ancient medical tradition or from a specific religion such as Brahmanism. One tricky issue that came up in the article is the definition of religion and science and what their definitions were when Ayurveda was created in contrast to their definitions in today’s society. Distinguishing between the two terms is tough, but Engler does so in his text. He begins his text with a thorough background on Ayurveda and its combination of Islamic, western, and folk medicine. This self-help spiritualistic belief is prevalent throughout India and has been introduced and implemented in other parts of the world. The number one goal of Ayurvedic physicians is to find the happiness for their patients which is found by preventative care and healing illnesses. Wealth and moksa (salvation) are also very important goals of Ayurvedic physicians who seek to heal their patients and keep them and their equilibrium on the path of success and happiness. Engler continues to present the difference between data and practice vs. data and theory; both are very different and contribute to Ayurveda and its roots in science. Proof in favor of either religion or science has been hard to find because the Ayurvedic texts are unclear. The texts do not explicitly say the things scientists need to prove that it is scientific and it is not full of religious terminology in favor of religion. In his conclusion Engler leads us from the terms of science and religion and says that we cannot define Ayurveda in western terms.
7. Frawley, David. "Yoga and Ayurveda: A Call for a Complete Yogic System of Medicine ." International Journal of Yoga Therapy. 18. (2008
The Ayurvedic medical system has a long history of usage with Yoga. David Frawley argues in this article that to bring out the full healing potential of Yoga, we need more than just Yoga therapists applying the tools of Yoga according to the guidelines of medical doctors. We need Yogic physicians who can diagnose and treat disease according to a medical system that is Yogic in nature, which already exists in Ayurveda. Yogic doctors would be able to employ the methods of natural medicine like diet, herbs, and massage in addition to yoga therapy. Ayurveda specifically deals with physical and psychological disease and focuses on treatment and when Yogic texts address health issues, they usually do so according to the approaches of Ayurveda. Ayurveda, on the other hand, takes the philosophy, principles, and practices of Yoga and orients them towards the healing of body and mind. However, when yoga came to the West, the Ayurvedic principles did not come with it and, wanting a medical application for Yoga, people adapted Yoga to modern medicine. By the 1970s, a new basis for Yoga had risen, largely different from Ayurveda. As a result, many people don’t know the connection between Ayurveda and Yoga, and view them as separate things. However, recently Ayurveda has spread to the West and people are beginning to see the connection, which can be helpful for several reasons. Yoga therapists can benefit from learning the Ayurvedic view of the body and mind and of health and disease, including individual constitution and Ayurveda's naturalistic approach to living. Furthermore, Yoga therapy can be more effective if applied along with Ayurvedic lifestyle guidelines and treatment measures such as diet, herbs, massage, and pancha karma. Combining these two therapies can help reduce diseases of mucus and congestion in the stomach, lungs, and heart, help with musculoskeletal disorders and reduce stress.
8. Ghatore, M.L. “Applied Yoga and its Relevance to Modern Life.” In Lectures on Ayurveda, 119-132. Kottakkal: Arya Vaidya Sala, 2002.
This lecture is dedicated to the discussion of a key element of the Ayurvedic healing practice; yoga. Yoga was originally taken up by a group of religious individuals for ascetic practice, but has now opened its practice up to an assortment of applications. There are various types of yoga such as; asana which is the changing of body positions to stabilize the mind and body, and dhyana which involves removing one from their external environment via mental practice. Regardless of the form of yoga being practiced, each is striving toward harmony and balance. Bringing this practice into everyday life, this lecture discusses pregnancy, childbirth, and childhood, as well as its application in the form of athletics. Yoga has proven to be efficacious during childbirth, during prenatal care, and in helping the mothers lose their baby weight. For the most part, children do not practice yoga, but recent studies have shown that introducing yoga into the elementary schools has been really helpful in the discipline area and have led to more emotionally stable students. Furthermore, yoga has been proven effective in regulating the constant flux of emotions of adolescents as they move through puberty. Another important feature of adolescence is sports. Yoga can be attributed to a number of aspects of the sports phenomena and most importantly; prevention, curing of injuries, and the promotion of skills. Physical activity naturally leads to a shortening of the muscles which leaves them more susceptible to injury. Steady increase in pace combined with steady stretching provides an excellent warm-up, and is the most important preventative measure taken to avoid injury. Next, yoga can help in the curative process as gentle stretching helps to alleviate muscle spasms, takes pressure off of nerves and tissues, and most importantly, increases circulation. Finally, to improve one’s overall fitness, which is important throughout all stages of life, yoga can help on a multitude of levels. This practice benefits the mind and the body and can be manipulated for whatever stage of life or health an individual is experiencing. Yoga is fluid. This lecture concludes with further discussion on how yoga can be efficacious for numerous aspects of life and disease.
9. Glynn JR, and TD Heymann. 1985. "Factors that influence patients in Sri Lanka in their choice between Ayurvedic and Western medicine". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 291 (6493): 470-2.
This article discusses the two options people have for medical treatment in Sri Lanka; they can choose between “Western (‘English’) and traditional (Ayurvedic).” Ayurveda requires time and cannot be used for a medical emergency because it’s techniques and practices take time. Some treatments last up to a month or more. Patients expect to see the results after a few weeks, however they expect immediate results when using Western medicine. It is also believed that many people use Ayurvedic treatments first to see if Western medicine is really necessary. Throughout the article the price of Ayurvedic treatments is discussed; no free Ayurvedic clinics could be found while many Western clinics could and would wave fees for those who could not afford them. It seems that patients have no other choice, but to use Western medicine if they are poor and cannot afford medical fees. Although Western medicine can provide medicine that prompts a quick recovery, some people believe it can have side effects on the balance of the body. The data collected from the two towns of Talawa and Denitiya concludes that people choose Western medicine over traditional Ayurvedic medicine because of the cost, speed, and use of ready-made medicine. Tradition is still very important to the people of Sri Lanka, but they say that they live in the modern ear and with that comes modern disease that can only be cured with modern medicine. The acceptance of both traditional and Western medicine provides options for all the people of Sri Lanka and gives ample opportunities for health care. Doctors believe that the quickness and effectiveness of Western medicine attracts patients because they want to be getting back to their normal daily lives as quickly as possible. Ayurveda may have been the only option for treatment in the past, but Western medicine has given Sri Lanka another option to provide health care to all it’s citizens.
10. Gopinath,B.G. Medicine and Life Sciences in India. Foundational Ideas of Ayurveda. IV, D.P. Chattopadhyaya. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001.
Ayurveda is a healing system with a goal of eliminating illness to achieve a long-healthy life. This chapter goes deep inside the Caraka samhitā, which is 120 chapters describing the philosophical aspects of Ayurveda. These chapters include; Sūtra (principles), Nidāna (etiology), Vimāna (measures of standardization), Śarīra (Human body), Indriya (signs of ensuing death), Cikitsā (therapeutics), Kalpa (formulations), and Siddhi (treatment). Using these philosophies as a backbone, Ayurvedic physicians traditionally were expected to be a friend, philosopher, and guide in both the material and spiritual world for those seeking treatment. Harmony with the spiritual world was the ultimate goal, but it was believed that one had to also have a harmonious material world before stepping into the latter. Furthermore, this chapter is heavy in a detailed description of the three main religio-philosophies on which the structure of Ayurveda is based. Sāṅkya is one of the oldest branches of the philosophies and is utilized to outline the differences between material and spirit. Next the Nyāya philosophy combines knowledge and logic to critically examine various objects. This philosophy is compiled of four methods of approach termed; scriptural testimony, perception, inference, and comparison, which are then used to measure or quantify a substance or drug. Lastly is Vaiśesika. This is a school of philosophy and it stresses the four elements earth, water, fire, and air. Additionally, Vaiśesika is compiled of six major components; substance, property, karma (action), samānyā (generality), specialty, and inherence, which denote the source and preservation of equilibrium of body elements.
11. Hankey, Alex. 2005. "The Scientific Value of Ayurveda".Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 11 (2).
Alex Hankley uses two different studies of Ayurveda to help support his analysis of the efficacy of this healing system. More specifically, he was analyzing the validity of the tridoshsa; pitta,vata, and kapha . The first study used questionnaires to determine which of the three doshas was the source behind an individual’s physiology, which is referred to as prakriti. The second study concluded that some that prakritis are heritable. In essence, these studies were fundamental to the study of the biology of Ayuverdic healing methods. To add some background, the three doshas each have a particular area of the body that they are responsible for. Vata is believed to be located near the abdomen and is responsible for movement. Pitta is centered in the middle of the body and controls energy, and finally kapha is located near the chest and controls structures and lubrication. Hankley understands that because this is a holistic science, biomedical theories cannot be utilized to determine its validity. Therefore, he proposes a systems theory to assess the efficacy of the tridoshas. He notes that the doshas are not just evident in humans, but in all living organisms. This leads to the assumption that they are present in all organisms’ regulation, and that all organisms must have an input/output and storage system. In the physical structure of the human body, the kidneys and colon conduct the input and output of nutrients (abdomen, vata) and energy for the input/output comes from the stomach and duodenum (middle body, pitta). Hankley draws these conclusions to tie Ayurveda to biological systems, and further, to add validity to the doshas. He concludes that drawing out these connections serves to advance Ayurveda in the modern scientific world, and furthermore, to add validity to other alternative healing systems as well.
12. Indigenous Systems Of Medicine In India. The British Medical Journal
Vol. 2, No. 3272 (Sep. 15, 1923), pp. 477-480
This article declares that on February 21st 1921 the Government endorsed indigenous systems of medicine. Specifically the Government said that Ayurvedic and Unani structures should be given the chance to prove their usefulness and benefit to the community in order to be support by the State. Surveys were created and sent all over India to hear people’s opinions about the State supporting Ayurvedic and Unani. It took a few months for all the responses to be collected and for the data to be read; after two years a report was presented with all the details and benefits that the indigenous systems had to offer. After hearing the information from the reports the facts stated that with over 42,000,000 people inhabiting the Madras Presidency that many of these people still practice Ayurvedic medicine. Some of these people have transitioned to use Western Medicine, but because not all people have made the switch to Western medicine, there is still reason for the State to possibly endorse Ayurveda and Unani. One argument made in the article is that Ayurvedic medicine uses old methods and it needs to be reshaped to work with the modern person. However, people believe in Ayurvedic medicine because of its traditions and “old beliefs” and this is clear with Ayurveda’s pathology. The Thri-Dhatu theory is very important in Ayurveda and people are afraid that if Ayurveda is “modernized” then it will lose its foundation and not be the Traditional medicine that it is meant to be. In conclusion the article makes a very good point in suggesting that until one learns Sanskirt and is taught the history of Ayurveda they cannot compare it to Western medicine. There are many similarities between Ayurvedic and Western medicine and both have benefits that are necessary to treat the sick. The Government had not a decision about if the State was going to support Ayurvedic and Unani at the time the article was published.
13. Islam, Nazrul. 2010. "Indigenous Medicine as Commodity". Current Sociology. 58 (5): 777-798.
This article examines Ayurveda’s current trend towards a health commodity for global consumption, a far cry from its roots as an indigenous system of healing. As the rapid social and economic modernization sweeps through India, this author holds that Ayurveda has taken a significant hit as a result. In an effort to fulfill the needs of a diverse global economy, Ayurveda has become increasingly liberalized over time. Indian pharmaceutical companies have pounced upon Ayurveda’s foundation as a system of “natural” healing, an increasingly popular ideology in the West, and thus it is being viewed as an untapped resource with great export potential. In recent history, the practice of Ayurveda has undergone many changes. In terms of professional practice, there are three main tracks leading to becoming an Ayurvedic practitioner: the traditional method of apprenticeship to a guru, institutional training at a college in the form of a Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine degree, and finally the postgraduate Doctor of Medicine (MD) in Ayurveda. Along with these changes in practice have been alterations in the way Ayurveda has been portrayed and utilized. The author identifies the commodification of Ayurveda as having begun during its revitalization period, after independence from Britain was won. Part of this nationalistic revival meant that Ayurveda was produced on much larger scales, and soon commercially manufactured Ayurvedic products became linked to symbols of Indian civilization and pride. Drug manufacturers began casting Ayurvedic drugs in a more modern and sophisticated light in order to appeal to its middle and upper classes, which often meant undergoing a transformation to resemble modern Western health products. The Indian pharmaceutical companies producing Ayurvedic medicines on large scales began to resemble those of America, with aggressive marketing campaigns to promote their products and working with Ayurvedic and allopathic practitioners alike as a tool of proliferation (with incentives for the practitioners). Pharmaceutical companies have gone so far as to attempt to redefine the female body- from a ‘medicalized’ one to a ‘natural’ one- in an appeal to capitalist consumerism while maintaining Ayurvedic ideologies. Therefore, despite their natural herbal components, Ayurvedic drugs are no less a medium used to promote health commodification than are allopathic drugs.
14. Jayasundar, Rama. 2010. "Ayurveda: a distinctive approach to health and disease". Current Science (00113891). 98 (7).
Jayasundar dives right into this article painting a very vivid picture with the western biomedical system on one side, and the Ayurveda healing system on the other. She is not using this as a space to focus on the negativity of biomedicine, but to highlight the fundamental differences of the Ayurveda practice. She conceptualizes the human body as a complex system, one in which there are multiple ways to understand and heal it. The biomedical model views these systems as individual pieces, such as the skeleton or endocrine system, and chooses to treat and heal them this way. Jayasundar terms this as a reductionist way of healing, focusing on individual systems separately. She describes the Ayurveda model as a much more holistic form of healing in which the body is a system of relationships. To treat this system as a whole, one has to understand the tridoshas; vata, pitta, and kapha (which refer to movement, transformation, and support and growth). The three doshas working in unison will result in healthful living, whereas, any disruption in the balance between the three results in illness. To treat an illness, the clinical symptoms need to be linked to the appropriate dosha. This part of Ayurveda is emphasized, in relation to biomedical healing, because this particular system strives to determine the underlying causes of all illnesses, rather than treating the symptoms. Treatment then is bringing the doshas back into balance by altering diet, lifestyle, taking medications, and sometimes even undergoing surgery. This way of healing allows the sufferer to have responsibility over their health. Jayasundar concludes with a final reiteration that the reductionist approach of western biomedical healing systems often struggles to fight off complex diseases like obesity (which can lead to diabetes, heart disease, cancer, etc.) and that the world will soon need to turn to more holistic ways of healing like Ayurveda
15. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet). Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Pg 1-73.
In the first chapter of Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet), Dr. P.H. Kulkarni describes the philosophy of food and diet in Ayrveda. He states that quality of life is greatly affected by the nature of the food we eat. Food is derived from the same five elements as the body and the universe. These elements are digested by their respective enzymes and replace the respective worn out elements. Kulkarni provides a few examples of foodstuffs providing the basic elements. Rice and wheat predominate the Earth element, milk and fruit juices predominate the Water element, and spices, which stimulate various enzymes, predominate the Energy element. Kulkarni also provides a few examples of diets recommended in response to a few ailments. In the case of a weak digestive system, one should use spices, which are rich in the Energy element. Those with edema should avoid salt. If one experiences a burning sensation, they should eat grapes and watermelon, which have the Water element. Kulkarni goes on to describe the Tridoshas: Kapha, Pitta and Vata, and their functions within the body. Vata dominates the region below the umbilical cord, Pitta dominates the region between the umbilical cord and the heart and Kapha dominates the region above the diaphragm. Each tridoshas has several functions within their region, listed on pages 38 - 42.
16. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet). Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Pg 74-188.
In chapters two and three of Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet), Dr. P.H. Kulkarni lists a number of dietary recommendations in Ayurveda. One should only eat beneficial foods and in moderation, at a proper time. One should eat with clean hand, feet, mouth, table and tableware, as well as clean cheerful, fragrant surrounds and a clean change of clothes. One should eat warm, freshly prepared food representing the six rasas (tastes): sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent. Ayurveda specifies a time frame everybody should eat their meals, with no less than 4 hours between meals and dinner 2 or 3 hours before sleep. Late meals right before bed produce indigestion, gaseous distention, hyperacidity and disturbed sleep. One shouldn’t eat food in a hurry, and eat it cheerfully and attentively. One should view their stomach as half full of solid food, a quarter with water and a quarter with air. This prevents indigestion. Ayurveda also suggests a specific taste sequence. One should eat sweet foods first, then sour and salty, and then all other tastes, while saving astringent for last. One must also not drink water directly before or after a meal, as it produces indigestion or obesity. Ayurveda recommends drinking a small quantity of water with food and then a sufficient quantity two or three hours later. Kulkarni also lists the five types of abnormal diet in Ayurveda. They are Adhyashana: frequent eating of food or eating before the previous digestion is complete, Asamashana: to take food at the wrong time or to skip meals, Samashana: to take meals with beneficial and harmful substances together, Anashana: to not take food at all or fast, and Viruddhashana, which means antagonistic diet. Kulkarni also provides a detailed list of diseases and food suggestions on pages 150 - 188.
17. Kulakaṇī, Pāṇḍuraṅga Harī. 2000. Ayurveda panchakarma: five purification procedures. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. 1-15.
In Ayurveda Panchakarma (Five Purification Procedures), Dr. Kulkarni describes the five procedures in panchakarma and the types of diseases they cure. Kayachikitsa (medicine) is one of the eight branches of ayurveda. There are two branches within Kayakchikitsa: shaman (alleviation) and shodhan (elimination). Any type of pathogenesis is caused by an imbalance of doshas and shaman is the method of treating the disease without elimination doshas out of the body, while shohan is the method of treating disease by eliminating vitiated doshas out of the body. These two methods are achieved by panchakarma therapy, which consists of five procedures. Vaman (emesis) is the procedure of eliminating doshas from the mouth. The elimination of doshas should be from the nearest route, and the mouth is the nearest route to the stomach. Vaman is commonly used for the treatment of kapha diseases. Virechan (purgation) is the elimination of vitiated doshas through the anus. This procedure is commonly used for pitta diseases. Basti (medicated enemas) is used to clean the large intestine as well as other benefits. There are three kinds: nirooha basti, in which a decoction of herbs is mainly used, anuvasan basti, in which oily material mainly used such as ghee oil and milk, and uttar basti, which is given in the bladder through the urethra for both sexes and in the uterus through hthe bagina for females. Nasya (errhine therapy) is the procedure in which medicines are adminiteres through nasal route, and is effective in head diseases. Raktamokshan (blood letting) stimulates the spleen and liver to produce better quality by oozing the blood outside the body. Panchakarma can be used for three objectives. To maintain the health, prior to Rasayan and Vajikaran treatments to give more benefits of these tow therapies, and for the treatment of diseases.
18. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda philosophy. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. (9-20)
In the first three chapters of his book, Kulkarni introduces the philosophy of Ayurveda. Kulkarni defines Ayurveda as the science of life, with the aim to promote, prolong, and maintain health and happiness, and to prevent and cure disease. He defines Ayu (life) as sharira (body), indriya (senses), sava (mind) and atma (spirit/soul). The basic principle in Ayurveda is to keep these elements happy by creating a balance in one’s internal forces to counteract changes in his/her environment. The first objective in Ayurveda philosophy is to strive for dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Dharma is to observe social and moral rules, duties towards self and others; artha is to understand our surrounding by body senses; kama is desire of various kinds; moksha is salvation. To achieve these aims, Ayurveda insists everyone should observe daily, seasonal and ethical routines (dincharya, rutucharya and sadvritta), balanced diet and sleep (aahara and nidra), and avoidance of mental or sexual intercourse without purpose (bramhacharya). Another important principle in Ayurveda philosophy is the elements and forces of the body. The body and the universe are composed of the same five elements called panchamahabhutas. They are earth (prithvi), water (aap), fire (agni), air (vayu) and space (akash). These combine to make three forces in the body: vata (air energy) is responsible for all voluntary and involuntary movements and regulates activities of the body and mind, pitta (fire energy) is responsible for food digestion, conversion to body tissues, and body temperature regulation, and kapha (water energy) builds the body and protects it from destruction. Altering ones diet and habits of living can balance these internal forces. Ayurveda recommends daily and seasonal routines to ensure no disturbances in the body.
19. Langford, Jean. 1995. "Ayurvedic interiors: person, space, and episteme in three medical practices". Cultural Anthropology. 10: 330-66.
Ayurveda looks at illness from a multidimensional viewpoint and addresses the social systems of balance. Biomedicine and Ayurvedic medicine look at the body, person, and illness in two different ways focusing on the different aspects of each. Biomedicine looks at people more as objects whereas Ayurveda looks for the procedures and patterns of relationships. One challenge Ayurvedic medicine has faced is how to incorporate biomedicine. Ayurveda has grown and expanded, but it does not want to accept all that biomedicine has to offer because it would change their founding tenets. It may seem like a good idea for all medicine to happen in a clinic or hospital, but realistically people do not always trust biomedicine and Ayurveda is a reliable option for those who do not want to use biomedicine. Ayurvedic medicine has tried to open hospitals, but could not receive financial help from the state so they were not able to succeed. There is a bias toward Traditional medicine and Ayurveda is not exempt from this, and it has taken many years to reopen Ayurvedic Colleges where physicians can be trained to provide Traditional medicine. Ayurveda has and will always be in a competition with biomedicine. Biomedicine has a focus on a mind-body dichotomy, while Ayurveda focuses on the interdependence between the mind and body. It has been suggested that Western medicine should consider incorporating more Traditional medicine, and Ayurveda would be in favor of this joining. By exploring three practitioners’ points of view we learn about the struggles modernity places on Ayurvedic medicine. Ayurveda is a symbol of national identity that is full of eternal truths, which can benefit Western medicine.
20. Leslie, C. M. 1963. "82. The Rhetoric of the Ayurvedic Revival in Modern India". Man. 63 (4): 72-73.
This article addresses the idea that about 70 years ago Ayurveda was introduced to the Islamic culture and it invigorated the medical scene. Earth, water, fair, air, and ether are the elements that make up man and are incorporated into Ayurvedic medicine. During a time of national struggle, the Indian society turned to Ayurveda, which provided new medical techniques, education, and security. Unami Tibbia is another form of medicine that was introduced along with Ayurveda during this time. The combination of Ayurveda and Unami Tibbia give numerous medical options and provide educational opportunities. One important part of Ayurvedic medicine is the tenets of revival. Creating a national system of medicine was very important to increase Indian society’s moral and dynamics. Having a central form of medicine for the people offered a new revitalization for the tenets of traditional Indian medicine. This new renewal showed that medicine was able to grow and was no longer a disadvantage that harmed the community. Cultivating medicine and creating advantageous way to use medicine was essential for growth to continue and be beneficial for the community. Unfortunately not all Indians believed in Ayurvedic and Unami Tibbia medicine, which forced them to adopt Western Medicine. Medical schools in India have struggled with teaching joint education in Western medicine and Ayurveda. These struggles have prompted programs to drop Western medicine and focus on traditional forms of medicine. Many colleges and universities have experienced riots and strikes, which have harmed the community. Knowledge in both Western and Traditional medicine is beneficial and enables the doctor to give their patients the best quality of care. The best research centers that have many resources and are highly funded, throughout India, are joint programs that complete research in Western and Traditional medicine. The shift from only Traditional medicine, which the Shuddha’s support, is raising many questions. Will Ayurvedic medicine be able to compete with Western medicine? The combination of both Western and Traditional medical practices can utilize their strengths to provide the best care possible to all people.
21. Majumdar, Ashok. “Natural Philosophy.” In Ãyurveda The Ancient Indian Science of Healing, 7-19. Allahabad: Wheeler Pub, 1998.
Ashok Majumdar begins his lengthy text on Ayurveda with an in depth description of its natural philosophy. He explains that to understand the philosophies of Ayurveda, one has to understand the Building Blocks of Existence which are compiled of the Sāmkhya philosophies and the concepts of Panchabuta. The Sāmkhya philosophy is based on theories of transformations and explains the existence of all things through the relationship of Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is considered the conscious of the spirit, whereas Prakriti is considered the unconscious. Together these two principles work together to maintain balance in the substance, and to do this, the Prakriti must undergo transformations. To support these transformations, the Prakriti contains three qualities called Gunas which are; Sattwa, Raja, and Tāmas. Sattwa stands for essence, and represents the structure of the substance. Raja stands for activity and represents change, and Tamas stands for inertia and represents the quality of resistance. Just as Purusha and Prakriti work together to negotiate transformation, so do the three Gunas. They must remain balanced, and they must remain together. A disrupt in the balance of the three Gunas is manifested in one of the three Antahkaranah’s or Inner Organs which are Buhddi, Ahamkāra, and Manas. These Inner Organs act as a receiving station for the unconscious and direct an awareness of the body. Put rather bluntly, Buddhi stands for intellect, Ahamkāra represents ego, and Manas represents the mind. Pulling it all together, a transformation in the unconscious leads to an imbalance in the Gunas, which are manifested in the Inner Organs, which then transform an individual’s personality or character.
22. Maujumdar, Ashok. “Bioregulating Principles: Triodosha.” In Ãyurveda The Ancient Indian Science of Healing, 20-64. Allahabad: Wheeler Pub, 1998.
Ashok Majumbar has dedicated Chapter 3 of his text on Ayurveda to the discussion of the principles of the three Tridoshas. The Tridoshas, which are Vāta, Pitta, and Kapha are the backbone of the treatments in this healing system. They represent various aspects of the physiology of the body and are only present in living things. Vāta represents movement of blood and other tissues. Pitta is responsible for memory and the heat of the body. Finally, Kapha solidifies certain tissues of the body, making them firm. The Ayurvedic healing system believes that the two elements, earth and ether, do not cause disease directly, therefore, only three elements are represented as the Doshas and are called Bhutas, or the three basic elements of nature; air (Vāta), fire (Pitta), and water (Kapha). The physiologic systems of the body such as blood, bone, and fat, are termed Dhātus. It is commonly understood, however, that the body is in constant disequilibrium, and so therefore the functions of the body are typically referred to as Doshas. Sometimes these Doshas can undergo a transformation and produce waste which is then excreted from the body in the form of feces, sweat, urine, etc. and this is called Malas.
Majumbar moves on to then describe the three Doshas more completely through the discussion of their locations within the body and the diseases and disorders caused by an imbalance between the three. To understand disease, one has to really understand the Doshas and their interactions with each other. Vāta, as stated before, represents movement, or air, and is known as the most important of the three Doshas as it sets the other two Doshas into motion. Vāta is located in the lower regions of the body such as; bladder, intestines, and legs. Pitta is responsible for metablising food to generate heat, which can then generate energy. This is clearly associated with its natural element; fire. Pitta is situated in the abdomen and is also found in blood and muscles. Lastly, Kapha, which means cooling, is located in the upper region of the body (head and neck) and is responsible for the construction of cells and bones, helps with the healing process, and most importantly is the cohesive factor between fire and air. Without a frame, there would be no fire or wind. It takes on the natural form of water as it cools the heat from Pitta.
23. Ninivaggi, Frank John. 2008. Ayurveda: a comprehensive guide to traditional Indian medicine for the West. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 1-26.
Ayurveda’s mythological origins are from before the period of written documentation, and thus accurate dating of its origins remains uncertain. While the first documents (including the Rig Veda, which contains some of the earliest Indian medical content) began appearing around the middle of the fourth millennium B.C. in the area of interest, there are few written documents describing medical systems of the era in existence. However, the Vedas- a group of religious and philosophical writings- are among some of the earliest written texts known today, suggesting that Ayurveda may be among the oldest systematized forms of medicine. Ayurveda is inextricably linked to both Buddhism and Hinduism, and is said to have been revealed by the Hindu god of creation Brahma, denoting its divine origins. After King Ashoka became the emperor of the Maurya kingdom of northern India in 200 B.C., the dissemination of Ayurveda was facilitated and became widely practiced in India. Throughout the next few millennia, a number of deified Ayurvedic physicians wrote important texts on Ayurvedic techniques and principles that remain indispensable sources of knowledge. After gaining independence from the British (who abolished nearly all schools teaching Ayurveda during their occupation), there was a national resurging interest in traditional Indian culture, and 1946 saw a formal governmental recognition and reacceptance of Ayurveda as a legitimate system of medicine. Since then, many schools devoted to teaching Ayurveda have been constructed, and Ayurveda enjoys widespread popularity in India and many other countries today.
24. Ninivaggi, Frank John, and Frank John Ninivaggi. 2008. Ayurveda: a comprehensive guide to traditional Indian medicine for the West. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 29-57.
The sages of the Vedic ages were believed to be intimately involved with the divine, and as such, their wisdom reflected such divine understanding. From the sages of this wisdom was Ayurveda supposedly born, divinely incepted and conceived. A few disciples of these sages became famous practitioners of Ayurveda and consequently wrote some of the earliest compilations of Ayurvedic philosophy and methods (Charaka, Sushruta, etc.). Over the centuries, Ayurveda has influenced and been influenced by the various philosophical and religious traditions such as Hinduism, Yoga, and Buddhism; since Ayurveda is the art of living life and not only cures for diseases, it must necessarily be intertwined religious and philosophical teachings. As such, it takes a much more holistic approach to healing by providing cures for ailments as well as prescriptions for how to lead a healthy life and live it well. One of the most important aspects of Ayurveda is the emphasis of consciousness and how this ties into reality. Firstly, Ayurvedic worldview is unitary, where no part of the totality of existence is disconnected from another. Second, constant interaction among the three regulatory principles of life (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha) and with the five great elements (ether, air, fire, water, and earth) is what determines the state of one’s health. There are two basic principles of treatment used to interact with the three doshas: Samanya (like increases like) and Vishesha (opposites balance to cure one another). One unique aspect about Ayurveda is that the three doshas are not specifically bound to the body, rather involving the holistic mind-body entity or psychophysiological functioning. It is this holistic view that allows Ayurveda to function as a prescription for one’s life rather than their body only, emphasizing the achievement of a dynamic balance and equilibrium in all aspects of one’s existence.
25. Obeyesekere, Gananath. 1970. "Ayurveda and Mental Illness". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 12 (3): 292-296.
Obeyesekere’s article is in response to Jerrold Levy’s critique of his previous article, Sanni Demons, dealing with Ayurvedic medicine. Levy challenges the validity of Ayurveda and its ability to serve both mental and physical health and Obeyesekere responds with this article, "Ayurveda and Mental Illness". This articles focuses on the doctrine of Ayurveda, its practices, and its effects. The main focus on the article is that there is a difference between mental and physical illness and he shows this by referencing the eight branches of traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The article has a few quotes from Susruta that provide extra evidence to prove that in this written history of Ayurveda there is a distinction between mental and physical health. With the eight branches and Susruta’s knowledge we learn that Ayurveda is actually capable of prescribing cures for illnesses, both physical and mental. The article sites Apasmara (epilepsy) and Unmada (madness) as examples of illnesses that may be due to the excess of bile, phlegm, or air. Obeyesekere’s main argument is that Ayurveda is a system of physical medicine that has two main and separate components: mental and physical health. Ayurvedic medicine uses symptomatology, and by interpreting the symptoms of the illness a cure can be derived. There is one specific ‘hospital’ in Nillammahara, which is outside of Colombo, where doctors treat patients with physical medicine and it is known for its treatments. Contemporary Ayurvedic doctors continue to use the tenets of symptomatology and continue to teach these techniques because they have been so successful. Ayurveda is compared to ritual specialists because of its linkage to Buddhism and the influence of culture. Ritual specialists also depend on the interpretation of symptoms to help determine illnesses. The use of symptomatology has been beneficial and will continue to strengthen Ayurvedic medicine.
26. Rastogi, Sanjeev. "Building bridges between Ayurveda and Modern Science." International Journal of Ayurveda Research 1, no. 1 (January 2010): 41-46. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed May 17, 2011).
It is argued by Rastogi that the beginning of the 21st century was supported with a much more open-minded attitude concerning eastern healthcare philosophies and practices. Previously, western ideals have typically stuck up their noses in light of methods like Ayurveda, but on the eastern front, medical schools have been attempting to combine science and Ayurveda for years. Because these concepts and philosophies are so complex, it is easy to understand why the lack of communication between the two methods has led to a concrete barrier in the West. But recently, some pro-Ayurveda individuals have been attempting to bridge the gap between these two methods by creating a mutually understandable language, while maintaining all original contexts.
One key ingredient to this cohesion is that both the biomedical model and Ayurveda have a very similar belief and understanding of the evolution of earth. The theory used in this article is termed the biopoiesis theory which dictates that life on earth is the product of a transition from biological monomers, to polymers, to cells. Ayurveda’s understanding of life is quite similar; everything that is living had to arise from something that was already living, through a number of intermediates. Ayurveda also believes that earth contains Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas which in turn symbolize energy, movement, and the ability to convert into new forms of being. Once life becomes visible it is called Mahabhuta, and interestingly enough, there are five forms of Mahabhuta which are related to the five elements of matter. Furthermore, the concept of the Tridoshas brings the Mahabhuta theory into practice as it represents the functions of the body. The concept of the Tridoshas can then be applied to assessing one’s overall health and to assessing medicinal materials. Rastogi continues to discuss these concepts in detail, but concludes with a calling for modern medical technology to further assess and validate the efficacy of Ayurveda so that they can be integrated into the western health care system.
27. Satow, Yumi E., Praveena D. Kumar, Adam Burke, and John F. Inciardi. 2008. "Exploring the Prevalence of Ayurveda Use Among Asian Indians". The Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1249-1253.
This article suggests that complementary and alternative medicine has become increasingly common in the United States. This may reflect a need to fill gaps in conventional Western medical care such as a need for improved therapeutic efficacy, greater cultural or linguistic relevance, and alignment with personal beliefs. A 2002 survey found that 36% of the US adult population had used complementary and alternative medicine in the past year. Ayurveda has had growing popularity in the West, but there is still no national training standards or licensed physicians for Ayurveda. This means that the form of use is home-remedy or self-care, not provider recommended of prescribed. Recently, there has been a growing Indian population in the United States, as more Asian Indians immigrate to the States. This article suggests that some immigrant prefer traditional medicine, as they believe Western medicines do not cure disease, but merely provide temporary relief from symptoms. An exploratory study was conducted to bring light on the use of Ayurvedic products and practices by Asian Indians in the Unites States. The study consisted of 64 participants in Northern California. The results showed that 93.8% had heard of Ayurveda and 59.4% had used or were currently using Ayurvedic products or practices. However, only 18% of those who use Ayurveda tell their physicians. These finding suggest a need for greater awareness of the Ayurveda system and a need to educate health care providers who work with Asian Indian populations. Especially since greater use of Ayurveda can be anticipated, due to an increased immigration of Asian Indians to the United States, and a growing interest in complementary and alternative practices including Ayurveda by the general public. There is also a recognized need for additional evidence- based research on the use of Ayurveda.
28. Sharma, Hari, H.M. Chandola, Gurdip Singh, and Gopal Basisht. 2007. "Utilization of Ayurveda in Health Care: An Approach for Prevention, Health Promotion, and Treatment of Disease. Part 1: Ayurveda, the Science of Life". Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 13 (9).
This article opens by demonstrating how allopathic medicine has fallen short of its objective of health for all by citing some staggering health statistics: in the year 2000, 171 million people had diabetes, 22 million had cancer, and 17 million people die from cardiovascular disease as well as millions of other iatrogenic sicknesses and deaths. The greatest attribute of Western medicine is its ability to deal with acute medical crises; however, Ayurvedic philosophy reveals a superficial and incomplete understanding of underlying pathology (especially of chronic diseases), which accounts for the above statistics. As well, the system in which Western medicine must operate excludes extremely large numbers of people, often along social and financial lines; incidentally, traditional and alternative medicines remain their main source of healing. After a period of repression during the colonial period, Ayurveda has been revived. Congruently, Western medicine is increasingly being used to validate Ayurvedic methods. It is hoped that the strengths of traditional medicine, given credence by Western science, will be combined with those of allopathic methods in order to best serve the needs of all people (rather than only those who can afford it).
One of the greatest strengths that Ayurveda has to offer is its holistic approach to healing, as it is a way of life. Three doshas are held to govern physiology; however, the three doshas are considered to be universal principles that function in all aspects of life. In this manner, Ayurvedic philosophy connects the human body with the whole of existence, and treatments consequently come in many different forms. In Ayurveda, the loss of contact to a unified field of pure consciousness, which is why meditation (which attempts to reestablish this connection) is so central to Ayurvedic healing.
29. Sharma, Hari M., and Christopher Clark. 1998.Contemporary Ayurveda: medicine and research in Maharishi Ayur-Veda. New York: Churchill Livingstone. 1-6.
During India’s colonial era, Ayurveda suffered greatly due to its active suppression by the British. As a result, the system became very disordered by varying standards of quality and conflicting practices and opinions. When independence was gained in 1947, however, a surge of national pride served as the catalyst of its full revival. In particular, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi was an instrumental figure in its rejuvenation, especially in the past few decades. He was an avid supporter of the integration of Ayurveda into contemporary medicinal systems and developed a modern variation of Ayurveda called Maharishi Ayur-Veda (MAV), which emphasizes Transcendental Meditation (TM) as a central mode of healing. This particular branch of Ayurveda has been carefully researched by many scholars over the past couple of decades, and its modern interpretation makes it better adapted to other contemporary medical systems and clinics, such as biomedicine. The authors demonstrate the need for a ‘new model’ of Western medicine, as the way it exists today (indicated by the current ‘iatroepidemic’) is falling quite short of our needs. MAV emphasizes a holistic approach to healing, has a more comprehensive view of ‘health’ as a positive entity, provides a detailed concept of what ‘normal’ health is, and offers more effective preventative medicinal practices. A main critique of Western medicine given in this chapter is the tendency to treat symptoms of a disease rather than attempting to solve the core problem; one of the specialties of Ayurveda and MAV alike is determining the root cause(s) of an illness. This is one example of the many ways in which Western medical philosophy could benefit from the integration of Ayurveda. Furthermore, Ayurveda is not simply a science of medicine, but it also describes the art of living and being.
30. Wujastyk, D. 1998. The Roots of Ayurveda: selections from Sankskrit medical writings. New Delhi: Penguin Books. 1-38.
In his discussion of the historical context of Ayurveda, Wujastyk suggests that India may have been among the first to develop an institutionally-based, organized system of medical provision, citing a passage from the travel accounts of Chinese Bhuddist pilgrim Fa Hsien. Ayurveda has its roots in thousands of years of medical pluralism in India, and as such, it utilizes a variety of approaches to treating an illness and is quite holistic in comparison to other systems of healing. Encompassing both preventive and prescriptive aspects, it provides practical advice on most aspects of life, but also includes specialized areas of knowledge. The foundations of Ayurvedic healing principles are centered around three main conceptual categories: humors, body tissues, and waste products. A thorough understanding of all of the many subdivisions of these three categories is essential for providing effective treatments in the system of Ayurveda, but one general rule of thumb that is apparent in all classic Ayurvedic texts is the emphasis of moderation in everything (food, sleep, exercise, sex, medicines, etc.) as a means to achieve balance in one’s life (which is essential to healthy living).
This article addresses the idea of how to properly define “good health” from a medical viewpoint. Overall fitness is the main concern instead of just focusing on specific diseases and illnesses, the emphasis is a holistic approach to health. Promoting healthy proactive lifestyles and well being as a way of life. Is “good health” when one is not experiencing an illness? It is extremely hard to define “good health” in one universal way. Can Western and Traditional medicines agree upon one definition? It can be agreed upon that most medicine is remedial and that is the base for the definition of “good health”. The body can be viewed in many ways symbolically, emotionally, and physically and because of this there can be many ways to interpret. Alter has studied for the past 15 years to examine Ayurveda as a mode of drastic self-improvement. Every person in the world experience health differently, and by defining “good health” it can limit people. One issue with Ayurvedic medicine is the intense daily schedule to promote well being, however if one strays from this path “good health” cannot be maintained. Should being in “good health” be necessary to be cured? However, does being cured give you “good health”? This idea is very puzzling and it makes it even harder to find a definition that encompasses all parts of health. This article focuses on living a balanced life and making sure to eat and sleep properly and how beneficial to promote “good health”, but Ayurveda focuses on different principles for “good health”. Some of Ayurveda’s principles are pathogenic such as regular smoking and taking snuff, however balancing all these practices works toward “good health”. The conclusions presented state that physical fitness may be important for “good health”, but do not fit with Ayurvedic medicine. Ayurveda focuses on linkages to medical domains to define “good health”.
2. Athavale, V. B. 2001. Pathogenesis in ayurveda = Samprapti. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. 1-13.
Pathogenesis in Ayurveda is, in essence, a matter of imbalance in one’s life. Specifically, the three doshas, tissues, and waste products of the body must be in harmony to create good health for any individual. The three doshas balance differently for each person, but one universal in Ayurvedic principles is that health is happiness, and conversely, disease is sorrow. The origins of disease, held by Ayurvedic philosophy, are that man’s vitality and knowledge was equal to that of God’s in the beginning of time. Much like Adam and Eve, the sages at the beginning of time enjoyed a life of unlimited longevity in a paradise of sorts, devoid of diseases and unhappiness of any sort. However, legend holds that those who were financially blessed began to eat more, drink more, and generally their habits gave way to a spirit of acquisition, and thus greed was born. This nature of overindulgence (or under-indulgence) in any one thing upset the balance necessary for the happy, healthful lives that were led previously, and the bodies of humans began to fail as a result. Successive generations enjoyed shorter life spans, culture gave way to characteristics of lust, hatred, cruelty, fear, and the like, and virtue was greatly deprived. It is thus that deviating from the path of righteousness gave rise to the beginnings of disease, and as such, the treatment of diseases necessitates a wide variety of cures (for the mind, the soul, the body, and more). The chapter goes further on to provide a basic classification of diseases, including: diseases of the body and mind, Nija and Agantu diseases (arise from ignoring one’s conscious), and Ekadoshaja, Dvandvaja, and Sannipatika diseases (according to the number of doshas affected).
3. Athavale, V. B. 2001. Pathogenesis in ayurveda = Samprapti. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. 14-37.
This chapter of the book gives a comprehensive account of the many etiological factors influencing disease in Ayurveda. Sannikrishtai and Viprakrishta include factors (such as day, season, diet, etc.) that increase the doshas directly, essentially immediate causes. Pradhanika and Vyabhichari refer to illnesses resulting from poisoning of any kind. Bahyahetu and Antarhetu refer to external or environmental causes of disease, which cause imbalances of dhatus (tissues), doshas, or malas (waste products). While Ayurveda generally focuses on balance of the three doshas for restoring health, it has also adapted well to modern theories of disease, and so has incorporated principles of chromosomal and genetic factors (Bijabhagavayava Dushti) and some aspects of germ theory. Constutitional factors (Doshaprakriti) involve an individual’s particular constitution regarding the three doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. If one’s constitution contains all three doshas, they are generally regarded as healthy; however, the majority of the population has a major imbalance of these three, and thus belongs to the category of a diseased constitution. There are many factors that increase various doshas (Dosha Vriddhi Karanani), including diet, activities, psychological factors, medicines, age, and more. In Prajnaparadha, the root cause of disease is held to be from disregarding one’s own conscience, or taking the wrong path regardless of known consequences. Some examples included in this category are: suppressing natural urges, excessive indulgences, rude behavior, disrespecting elderly or teachers, deviating from the righteous path, and becoming angry, jealous, frightful, or greedy and acting accordingly. In essence, this category deals with the lack of control over one’s desires and actions. Environmental factors (Kalakrita Karanarni) are very important to Ayurvedic philosophy, as man exists in the context of his environment and must interact with it on a daily basis. For this reason, much attention is paid to time and season, which greatly affect the doshas.
4. Banerjee, Madhulika. 2002. "SPECIAL ARTICLES - Public Policy and Ayurveda: Modernising a Great Tradition". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (12): 1136.
The question that is addressed throughout Banerjee’s article is what is the best policy for the modern Indian society? Should a combination of Ayurvedic and Western medicine be complied into a universal policy, or should they be two different entities? The modernization of Ayurveda continues to be the focus of India and their people; they are working to promote its usefulness for the body, health and disease. The Nehruvian vision focused on modernity and how by using Western medicine India could become very powerful in the medical realm. They want India to reach their full potential and if that means incorporating new medicinal techniques then they want to do so. The Nehruvian’s want to promote the image that India is a developed nation that continues to grow technologically. When combining Western and Ayurvedic medicine the issue of blending the traditions and beliefs of both structures arises. Can modern rituals and the customs of the past work together to provide holistic care? The Health Survey and Development Committee was created to survey the current views of the health system. Then the Chopra Committee was formed and its focus was to leave behind the colonial traditions and to move towards Western medicine. After these committees were created their data was presented and showed that science is science. Whether one focuses on Western medicine or Traditional, they both have benefits and by integrating them one creates a broad variety of treatments to cure people. In conclusion, Western and Traditional medicine are two different entities and they are able to compliment each other. Finding a happy medium between the two is hard and integrating the traditions of the past with the modern technology is a challenge that is being faced every day. India does not have all the answers, but they are working toward a policy that takes care of all their citizens by providing both Western and Ayurvedic or Traditional medicine.
5. Dash, Bhagwan. 1992. Massage therapy in ayurveda. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co
Bhagwan Dash says a healthy person is only one with his mind, sense organs, and soul in a state of perfect equilibrium to endow happiness. The specific attributes of ayurveda are that it prevents and corrects aging process, helps a person overcome fatigue because of routine hard work in life, prevents and corrects disorders caused by the affliction of the nervous system, promotes eyesight, helps nourishment of the body, promotes longevity of an individual, helps the individual to get sleep, and promotes sturdiness of the individual. Pages 21-24 lists and describes the ailments cured by massage. Dash compares the body to a leather bag; it gets worn out quickly if it is used regularly, but greasing it will make it last longer. It is recommended to massage almost daily before bathing, so as to wash away the oils, and wait one hour after the massage to bathe. Some specific locations to focus the massaging are the head are the soles of the feet. The head is the most important organ in the body because all the sense organs are located in it. Massaging our head provides nourishment to all these senses and promotes their normal and natural functions. Some attributes of head massages are that it prevents and cures headache, hair-fall, premature graying and baldness, makes hair long, soft and glossy, and prevents and cures refraction errors of the eyes, promotes complexion and endows a person with sound sleep. One should massage the soles of their feet before going to bed, which will prevent and cure dryness, numbness, roughness, fatigue, lack of sensation and cracking in the soles, promote strength for walking and running, and promote eyesight and hearing, as the soles are very closely connected with the eyes and ears.
6. Engler, Steven. 2003. ""SCIENCE" VS. "RELIGION" IN CLASSICAL AYURVEDA.". Numen: International Review for the History of Religions. 50 (4).
Science vs. religion is a controversial topic that is addressed throughout Engler’s article; he specifically relates the issue to Ayurveda. The scientific community believes that the roots of Ayurveda are scientific and although people have accused Ayurveda of having a religious origin, many stick with the idea that it is firmly rooted in science. The article is broken into many parts that explore the depths of the issue at hand and if the argument is really about whether Ayurveda was rooted in science or religion or if the real question at hand is if Ayurveda came from ancient medical tradition or from a specific religion such as Brahmanism. One tricky issue that came up in the article is the definition of religion and science and what their definitions were when Ayurveda was created in contrast to their definitions in today’s society. Distinguishing between the two terms is tough, but Engler does so in his text. He begins his text with a thorough background on Ayurveda and its combination of Islamic, western, and folk medicine. This self-help spiritualistic belief is prevalent throughout India and has been introduced and implemented in other parts of the world. The number one goal of Ayurvedic physicians is to find the happiness for their patients which is found by preventative care and healing illnesses. Wealth and moksa (salvation) are also very important goals of Ayurvedic physicians who seek to heal their patients and keep them and their equilibrium on the path of success and happiness. Engler continues to present the difference between data and practice vs. data and theory; both are very different and contribute to Ayurveda and its roots in science. Proof in favor of either religion or science has been hard to find because the Ayurvedic texts are unclear. The texts do not explicitly say the things scientists need to prove that it is scientific and it is not full of religious terminology in favor of religion. In his conclusion Engler leads us from the terms of science and religion and says that we cannot define Ayurveda in western terms.
7. Frawley, David. "Yoga and Ayurveda: A Call for a Complete Yogic System of Medicine ." International Journal of Yoga Therapy. 18. (2008
The Ayurvedic medical system has a long history of usage with Yoga. David Frawley argues in this article that to bring out the full healing potential of Yoga, we need more than just Yoga therapists applying the tools of Yoga according to the guidelines of medical doctors. We need Yogic physicians who can diagnose and treat disease according to a medical system that is Yogic in nature, which already exists in Ayurveda. Yogic doctors would be able to employ the methods of natural medicine like diet, herbs, and massage in addition to yoga therapy. Ayurveda specifically deals with physical and psychological disease and focuses on treatment and when Yogic texts address health issues, they usually do so according to the approaches of Ayurveda. Ayurveda, on the other hand, takes the philosophy, principles, and practices of Yoga and orients them towards the healing of body and mind. However, when yoga came to the West, the Ayurvedic principles did not come with it and, wanting a medical application for Yoga, people adapted Yoga to modern medicine. By the 1970s, a new basis for Yoga had risen, largely different from Ayurveda. As a result, many people don’t know the connection between Ayurveda and Yoga, and view them as separate things. However, recently Ayurveda has spread to the West and people are beginning to see the connection, which can be helpful for several reasons. Yoga therapists can benefit from learning the Ayurvedic view of the body and mind and of health and disease, including individual constitution and Ayurveda's naturalistic approach to living. Furthermore, Yoga therapy can be more effective if applied along with Ayurvedic lifestyle guidelines and treatment measures such as diet, herbs, massage, and pancha karma. Combining these two therapies can help reduce diseases of mucus and congestion in the stomach, lungs, and heart, help with musculoskeletal disorders and reduce stress.
8. Ghatore, M.L. “Applied Yoga and its Relevance to Modern Life.” In Lectures on Ayurveda, 119-132. Kottakkal: Arya Vaidya Sala, 2002.
This lecture is dedicated to the discussion of a key element of the Ayurvedic healing practice; yoga. Yoga was originally taken up by a group of religious individuals for ascetic practice, but has now opened its practice up to an assortment of applications. There are various types of yoga such as; asana which is the changing of body positions to stabilize the mind and body, and dhyana which involves removing one from their external environment via mental practice. Regardless of the form of yoga being practiced, each is striving toward harmony and balance. Bringing this practice into everyday life, this lecture discusses pregnancy, childbirth, and childhood, as well as its application in the form of athletics. Yoga has proven to be efficacious during childbirth, during prenatal care, and in helping the mothers lose their baby weight. For the most part, children do not practice yoga, but recent studies have shown that introducing yoga into the elementary schools has been really helpful in the discipline area and have led to more emotionally stable students. Furthermore, yoga has been proven effective in regulating the constant flux of emotions of adolescents as they move through puberty. Another important feature of adolescence is sports. Yoga can be attributed to a number of aspects of the sports phenomena and most importantly; prevention, curing of injuries, and the promotion of skills. Physical activity naturally leads to a shortening of the muscles which leaves them more susceptible to injury. Steady increase in pace combined with steady stretching provides an excellent warm-up, and is the most important preventative measure taken to avoid injury. Next, yoga can help in the curative process as gentle stretching helps to alleviate muscle spasms, takes pressure off of nerves and tissues, and most importantly, increases circulation. Finally, to improve one’s overall fitness, which is important throughout all stages of life, yoga can help on a multitude of levels. This practice benefits the mind and the body and can be manipulated for whatever stage of life or health an individual is experiencing. Yoga is fluid. This lecture concludes with further discussion on how yoga can be efficacious for numerous aspects of life and disease.
9. Glynn JR, and TD Heymann. 1985. "Factors that influence patients in Sri Lanka in their choice between Ayurvedic and Western medicine". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 291 (6493): 470-2.
This article discusses the two options people have for medical treatment in Sri Lanka; they can choose between “Western (‘English’) and traditional (Ayurvedic).” Ayurveda requires time and cannot be used for a medical emergency because it’s techniques and practices take time. Some treatments last up to a month or more. Patients expect to see the results after a few weeks, however they expect immediate results when using Western medicine. It is also believed that many people use Ayurvedic treatments first to see if Western medicine is really necessary. Throughout the article the price of Ayurvedic treatments is discussed; no free Ayurvedic clinics could be found while many Western clinics could and would wave fees for those who could not afford them. It seems that patients have no other choice, but to use Western medicine if they are poor and cannot afford medical fees. Although Western medicine can provide medicine that prompts a quick recovery, some people believe it can have side effects on the balance of the body. The data collected from the two towns of Talawa and Denitiya concludes that people choose Western medicine over traditional Ayurvedic medicine because of the cost, speed, and use of ready-made medicine. Tradition is still very important to the people of Sri Lanka, but they say that they live in the modern ear and with that comes modern disease that can only be cured with modern medicine. The acceptance of both traditional and Western medicine provides options for all the people of Sri Lanka and gives ample opportunities for health care. Doctors believe that the quickness and effectiveness of Western medicine attracts patients because they want to be getting back to their normal daily lives as quickly as possible. Ayurveda may have been the only option for treatment in the past, but Western medicine has given Sri Lanka another option to provide health care to all it’s citizens.
10. Gopinath,B.G. Medicine and Life Sciences in India. Foundational Ideas of Ayurveda. IV, D.P. Chattopadhyaya. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001.
Ayurveda is a healing system with a goal of eliminating illness to achieve a long-healthy life. This chapter goes deep inside the Caraka samhitā, which is 120 chapters describing the philosophical aspects of Ayurveda. These chapters include; Sūtra (principles), Nidāna (etiology), Vimāna (measures of standardization), Śarīra (Human body), Indriya (signs of ensuing death), Cikitsā (therapeutics), Kalpa (formulations), and Siddhi (treatment). Using these philosophies as a backbone, Ayurvedic physicians traditionally were expected to be a friend, philosopher, and guide in both the material and spiritual world for those seeking treatment. Harmony with the spiritual world was the ultimate goal, but it was believed that one had to also have a harmonious material world before stepping into the latter. Furthermore, this chapter is heavy in a detailed description of the three main religio-philosophies on which the structure of Ayurveda is based. Sāṅkya is one of the oldest branches of the philosophies and is utilized to outline the differences between material and spirit. Next the Nyāya philosophy combines knowledge and logic to critically examine various objects. This philosophy is compiled of four methods of approach termed; scriptural testimony, perception, inference, and comparison, which are then used to measure or quantify a substance or drug. Lastly is Vaiśesika. This is a school of philosophy and it stresses the four elements earth, water, fire, and air. Additionally, Vaiśesika is compiled of six major components; substance, property, karma (action), samānyā (generality), specialty, and inherence, which denote the source and preservation of equilibrium of body elements.
11. Hankey, Alex. 2005. "The Scientific Value of Ayurveda".Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 11 (2).
Alex Hankley uses two different studies of Ayurveda to help support his analysis of the efficacy of this healing system. More specifically, he was analyzing the validity of the tridoshsa; pitta,vata, and kapha . The first study used questionnaires to determine which of the three doshas was the source behind an individual’s physiology, which is referred to as prakriti. The second study concluded that some that prakritis are heritable. In essence, these studies were fundamental to the study of the biology of Ayuverdic healing methods. To add some background, the three doshas each have a particular area of the body that they are responsible for. Vata is believed to be located near the abdomen and is responsible for movement. Pitta is centered in the middle of the body and controls energy, and finally kapha is located near the chest and controls structures and lubrication. Hankley understands that because this is a holistic science, biomedical theories cannot be utilized to determine its validity. Therefore, he proposes a systems theory to assess the efficacy of the tridoshas. He notes that the doshas are not just evident in humans, but in all living organisms. This leads to the assumption that they are present in all organisms’ regulation, and that all organisms must have an input/output and storage system. In the physical structure of the human body, the kidneys and colon conduct the input and output of nutrients (abdomen, vata) and energy for the input/output comes from the stomach and duodenum (middle body, pitta). Hankley draws these conclusions to tie Ayurveda to biological systems, and further, to add validity to the doshas. He concludes that drawing out these connections serves to advance Ayurveda in the modern scientific world, and furthermore, to add validity to other alternative healing systems as well.
12. Indigenous Systems Of Medicine In India. The British Medical Journal
Vol. 2, No. 3272 (Sep. 15, 1923), pp. 477-480
This article declares that on February 21st 1921 the Government endorsed indigenous systems of medicine. Specifically the Government said that Ayurvedic and Unani structures should be given the chance to prove their usefulness and benefit to the community in order to be support by the State. Surveys were created and sent all over India to hear people’s opinions about the State supporting Ayurvedic and Unani. It took a few months for all the responses to be collected and for the data to be read; after two years a report was presented with all the details and benefits that the indigenous systems had to offer. After hearing the information from the reports the facts stated that with over 42,000,000 people inhabiting the Madras Presidency that many of these people still practice Ayurvedic medicine. Some of these people have transitioned to use Western Medicine, but because not all people have made the switch to Western medicine, there is still reason for the State to possibly endorse Ayurveda and Unani. One argument made in the article is that Ayurvedic medicine uses old methods and it needs to be reshaped to work with the modern person. However, people believe in Ayurvedic medicine because of its traditions and “old beliefs” and this is clear with Ayurveda’s pathology. The Thri-Dhatu theory is very important in Ayurveda and people are afraid that if Ayurveda is “modernized” then it will lose its foundation and not be the Traditional medicine that it is meant to be. In conclusion the article makes a very good point in suggesting that until one learns Sanskirt and is taught the history of Ayurveda they cannot compare it to Western medicine. There are many similarities between Ayurvedic and Western medicine and both have benefits that are necessary to treat the sick. The Government had not a decision about if the State was going to support Ayurvedic and Unani at the time the article was published.
13. Islam, Nazrul. 2010. "Indigenous Medicine as Commodity". Current Sociology. 58 (5): 777-798.
This article examines Ayurveda’s current trend towards a health commodity for global consumption, a far cry from its roots as an indigenous system of healing. As the rapid social and economic modernization sweeps through India, this author holds that Ayurveda has taken a significant hit as a result. In an effort to fulfill the needs of a diverse global economy, Ayurveda has become increasingly liberalized over time. Indian pharmaceutical companies have pounced upon Ayurveda’s foundation as a system of “natural” healing, an increasingly popular ideology in the West, and thus it is being viewed as an untapped resource with great export potential. In recent history, the practice of Ayurveda has undergone many changes. In terms of professional practice, there are three main tracks leading to becoming an Ayurvedic practitioner: the traditional method of apprenticeship to a guru, institutional training at a college in the form of a Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine degree, and finally the postgraduate Doctor of Medicine (MD) in Ayurveda. Along with these changes in practice have been alterations in the way Ayurveda has been portrayed and utilized. The author identifies the commodification of Ayurveda as having begun during its revitalization period, after independence from Britain was won. Part of this nationalistic revival meant that Ayurveda was produced on much larger scales, and soon commercially manufactured Ayurvedic products became linked to symbols of Indian civilization and pride. Drug manufacturers began casting Ayurvedic drugs in a more modern and sophisticated light in order to appeal to its middle and upper classes, which often meant undergoing a transformation to resemble modern Western health products. The Indian pharmaceutical companies producing Ayurvedic medicines on large scales began to resemble those of America, with aggressive marketing campaigns to promote their products and working with Ayurvedic and allopathic practitioners alike as a tool of proliferation (with incentives for the practitioners). Pharmaceutical companies have gone so far as to attempt to redefine the female body- from a ‘medicalized’ one to a ‘natural’ one- in an appeal to capitalist consumerism while maintaining Ayurvedic ideologies. Therefore, despite their natural herbal components, Ayurvedic drugs are no less a medium used to promote health commodification than are allopathic drugs.
14. Jayasundar, Rama. 2010. "Ayurveda: a distinctive approach to health and disease". Current Science (00113891). 98 (7).
Jayasundar dives right into this article painting a very vivid picture with the western biomedical system on one side, and the Ayurveda healing system on the other. She is not using this as a space to focus on the negativity of biomedicine, but to highlight the fundamental differences of the Ayurveda practice. She conceptualizes the human body as a complex system, one in which there are multiple ways to understand and heal it. The biomedical model views these systems as individual pieces, such as the skeleton or endocrine system, and chooses to treat and heal them this way. Jayasundar terms this as a reductionist way of healing, focusing on individual systems separately. She describes the Ayurveda model as a much more holistic form of healing in which the body is a system of relationships. To treat this system as a whole, one has to understand the tridoshas; vata, pitta, and kapha (which refer to movement, transformation, and support and growth). The three doshas working in unison will result in healthful living, whereas, any disruption in the balance between the three results in illness. To treat an illness, the clinical symptoms need to be linked to the appropriate dosha. This part of Ayurveda is emphasized, in relation to biomedical healing, because this particular system strives to determine the underlying causes of all illnesses, rather than treating the symptoms. Treatment then is bringing the doshas back into balance by altering diet, lifestyle, taking medications, and sometimes even undergoing surgery. This way of healing allows the sufferer to have responsibility over their health. Jayasundar concludes with a final reiteration that the reductionist approach of western biomedical healing systems often struggles to fight off complex diseases like obesity (which can lead to diabetes, heart disease, cancer, etc.) and that the world will soon need to turn to more holistic ways of healing like Ayurveda
15. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet). Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Pg 1-73.
In the first chapter of Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet), Dr. P.H. Kulkarni describes the philosophy of food and diet in Ayrveda. He states that quality of life is greatly affected by the nature of the food we eat. Food is derived from the same five elements as the body and the universe. These elements are digested by their respective enzymes and replace the respective worn out elements. Kulkarni provides a few examples of foodstuffs providing the basic elements. Rice and wheat predominate the Earth element, milk and fruit juices predominate the Water element, and spices, which stimulate various enzymes, predominate the Energy element. Kulkarni also provides a few examples of diets recommended in response to a few ailments. In the case of a weak digestive system, one should use spices, which are rich in the Energy element. Those with edema should avoid salt. If one experiences a burning sensation, they should eat grapes and watermelon, which have the Water element. Kulkarni goes on to describe the Tridoshas: Kapha, Pitta and Vata, and their functions within the body. Vata dominates the region below the umbilical cord, Pitta dominates the region between the umbilical cord and the heart and Kapha dominates the region above the diaphragm. Each tridoshas has several functions within their region, listed on pages 38 - 42.
16. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet). Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Pg 74-188.
In chapters two and three of Ayurveda Aahar (Food/Diet), Dr. P.H. Kulkarni lists a number of dietary recommendations in Ayurveda. One should only eat beneficial foods and in moderation, at a proper time. One should eat with clean hand, feet, mouth, table and tableware, as well as clean cheerful, fragrant surrounds and a clean change of clothes. One should eat warm, freshly prepared food representing the six rasas (tastes): sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent. Ayurveda specifies a time frame everybody should eat their meals, with no less than 4 hours between meals and dinner 2 or 3 hours before sleep. Late meals right before bed produce indigestion, gaseous distention, hyperacidity and disturbed sleep. One shouldn’t eat food in a hurry, and eat it cheerfully and attentively. One should view their stomach as half full of solid food, a quarter with water and a quarter with air. This prevents indigestion. Ayurveda also suggests a specific taste sequence. One should eat sweet foods first, then sour and salty, and then all other tastes, while saving astringent for last. One must also not drink water directly before or after a meal, as it produces indigestion or obesity. Ayurveda recommends drinking a small quantity of water with food and then a sufficient quantity two or three hours later. Kulkarni also lists the five types of abnormal diet in Ayurveda. They are Adhyashana: frequent eating of food or eating before the previous digestion is complete, Asamashana: to take food at the wrong time or to skip meals, Samashana: to take meals with beneficial and harmful substances together, Anashana: to not take food at all or fast, and Viruddhashana, which means antagonistic diet. Kulkarni also provides a detailed list of diseases and food suggestions on pages 150 - 188.
17. Kulakaṇī, Pāṇḍuraṅga Harī. 2000. Ayurveda panchakarma: five purification procedures. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. 1-15.
In Ayurveda Panchakarma (Five Purification Procedures), Dr. Kulkarni describes the five procedures in panchakarma and the types of diseases they cure. Kayachikitsa (medicine) is one of the eight branches of ayurveda. There are two branches within Kayakchikitsa: shaman (alleviation) and shodhan (elimination). Any type of pathogenesis is caused by an imbalance of doshas and shaman is the method of treating the disease without elimination doshas out of the body, while shohan is the method of treating disease by eliminating vitiated doshas out of the body. These two methods are achieved by panchakarma therapy, which consists of five procedures. Vaman (emesis) is the procedure of eliminating doshas from the mouth. The elimination of doshas should be from the nearest route, and the mouth is the nearest route to the stomach. Vaman is commonly used for the treatment of kapha diseases. Virechan (purgation) is the elimination of vitiated doshas through the anus. This procedure is commonly used for pitta diseases. Basti (medicated enemas) is used to clean the large intestine as well as other benefits. There are three kinds: nirooha basti, in which a decoction of herbs is mainly used, anuvasan basti, in which oily material mainly used such as ghee oil and milk, and uttar basti, which is given in the bladder through the urethra for both sexes and in the uterus through hthe bagina for females. Nasya (errhine therapy) is the procedure in which medicines are adminiteres through nasal route, and is effective in head diseases. Raktamokshan (blood letting) stimulates the spleen and liver to produce better quality by oozing the blood outside the body. Panchakarma can be used for three objectives. To maintain the health, prior to Rasayan and Vajikaran treatments to give more benefits of these tow therapies, and for the treatment of diseases.
18. Kulakarṇī, P. H. (2000). Ayurveda philosophy. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. (9-20)
In the first three chapters of his book, Kulkarni introduces the philosophy of Ayurveda. Kulkarni defines Ayurveda as the science of life, with the aim to promote, prolong, and maintain health and happiness, and to prevent and cure disease. He defines Ayu (life) as sharira (body), indriya (senses), sava (mind) and atma (spirit/soul). The basic principle in Ayurveda is to keep these elements happy by creating a balance in one’s internal forces to counteract changes in his/her environment. The first objective in Ayurveda philosophy is to strive for dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Dharma is to observe social and moral rules, duties towards self and others; artha is to understand our surrounding by body senses; kama is desire of various kinds; moksha is salvation. To achieve these aims, Ayurveda insists everyone should observe daily, seasonal and ethical routines (dincharya, rutucharya and sadvritta), balanced diet and sleep (aahara and nidra), and avoidance of mental or sexual intercourse without purpose (bramhacharya). Another important principle in Ayurveda philosophy is the elements and forces of the body. The body and the universe are composed of the same five elements called panchamahabhutas. They are earth (prithvi), water (aap), fire (agni), air (vayu) and space (akash). These combine to make three forces in the body: vata (air energy) is responsible for all voluntary and involuntary movements and regulates activities of the body and mind, pitta (fire energy) is responsible for food digestion, conversion to body tissues, and body temperature regulation, and kapha (water energy) builds the body and protects it from destruction. Altering ones diet and habits of living can balance these internal forces. Ayurveda recommends daily and seasonal routines to ensure no disturbances in the body.
19. Langford, Jean. 1995. "Ayurvedic interiors: person, space, and episteme in three medical practices". Cultural Anthropology. 10: 330-66.
Ayurveda looks at illness from a multidimensional viewpoint and addresses the social systems of balance. Biomedicine and Ayurvedic medicine look at the body, person, and illness in two different ways focusing on the different aspects of each. Biomedicine looks at people more as objects whereas Ayurveda looks for the procedures and patterns of relationships. One challenge Ayurvedic medicine has faced is how to incorporate biomedicine. Ayurveda has grown and expanded, but it does not want to accept all that biomedicine has to offer because it would change their founding tenets. It may seem like a good idea for all medicine to happen in a clinic or hospital, but realistically people do not always trust biomedicine and Ayurveda is a reliable option for those who do not want to use biomedicine. Ayurvedic medicine has tried to open hospitals, but could not receive financial help from the state so they were not able to succeed. There is a bias toward Traditional medicine and Ayurveda is not exempt from this, and it has taken many years to reopen Ayurvedic Colleges where physicians can be trained to provide Traditional medicine. Ayurveda has and will always be in a competition with biomedicine. Biomedicine has a focus on a mind-body dichotomy, while Ayurveda focuses on the interdependence between the mind and body. It has been suggested that Western medicine should consider incorporating more Traditional medicine, and Ayurveda would be in favor of this joining. By exploring three practitioners’ points of view we learn about the struggles modernity places on Ayurvedic medicine. Ayurveda is a symbol of national identity that is full of eternal truths, which can benefit Western medicine.
20. Leslie, C. M. 1963. "82. The Rhetoric of the Ayurvedic Revival in Modern India". Man. 63 (4): 72-73.
This article addresses the idea that about 70 years ago Ayurveda was introduced to the Islamic culture and it invigorated the medical scene. Earth, water, fair, air, and ether are the elements that make up man and are incorporated into Ayurvedic medicine. During a time of national struggle, the Indian society turned to Ayurveda, which provided new medical techniques, education, and security. Unami Tibbia is another form of medicine that was introduced along with Ayurveda during this time. The combination of Ayurveda and Unami Tibbia give numerous medical options and provide educational opportunities. One important part of Ayurvedic medicine is the tenets of revival. Creating a national system of medicine was very important to increase Indian society’s moral and dynamics. Having a central form of medicine for the people offered a new revitalization for the tenets of traditional Indian medicine. This new renewal showed that medicine was able to grow and was no longer a disadvantage that harmed the community. Cultivating medicine and creating advantageous way to use medicine was essential for growth to continue and be beneficial for the community. Unfortunately not all Indians believed in Ayurvedic and Unami Tibbia medicine, which forced them to adopt Western Medicine. Medical schools in India have struggled with teaching joint education in Western medicine and Ayurveda. These struggles have prompted programs to drop Western medicine and focus on traditional forms of medicine. Many colleges and universities have experienced riots and strikes, which have harmed the community. Knowledge in both Western and Traditional medicine is beneficial and enables the doctor to give their patients the best quality of care. The best research centers that have many resources and are highly funded, throughout India, are joint programs that complete research in Western and Traditional medicine. The shift from only Traditional medicine, which the Shuddha’s support, is raising many questions. Will Ayurvedic medicine be able to compete with Western medicine? The combination of both Western and Traditional medical practices can utilize their strengths to provide the best care possible to all people.
21. Majumdar, Ashok. “Natural Philosophy.” In Ãyurveda The Ancient Indian Science of Healing, 7-19. Allahabad: Wheeler Pub, 1998.
Ashok Majumdar begins his lengthy text on Ayurveda with an in depth description of its natural philosophy. He explains that to understand the philosophies of Ayurveda, one has to understand the Building Blocks of Existence which are compiled of the Sāmkhya philosophies and the concepts of Panchabuta. The Sāmkhya philosophy is based on theories of transformations and explains the existence of all things through the relationship of Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is considered the conscious of the spirit, whereas Prakriti is considered the unconscious. Together these two principles work together to maintain balance in the substance, and to do this, the Prakriti must undergo transformations. To support these transformations, the Prakriti contains three qualities called Gunas which are; Sattwa, Raja, and Tāmas. Sattwa stands for essence, and represents the structure of the substance. Raja stands for activity and represents change, and Tamas stands for inertia and represents the quality of resistance. Just as Purusha and Prakriti work together to negotiate transformation, so do the three Gunas. They must remain balanced, and they must remain together. A disrupt in the balance of the three Gunas is manifested in one of the three Antahkaranah’s or Inner Organs which are Buhddi, Ahamkāra, and Manas. These Inner Organs act as a receiving station for the unconscious and direct an awareness of the body. Put rather bluntly, Buddhi stands for intellect, Ahamkāra represents ego, and Manas represents the mind. Pulling it all together, a transformation in the unconscious leads to an imbalance in the Gunas, which are manifested in the Inner Organs, which then transform an individual’s personality or character.
22. Maujumdar, Ashok. “Bioregulating Principles: Triodosha.” In Ãyurveda The Ancient Indian Science of Healing, 20-64. Allahabad: Wheeler Pub, 1998.
Ashok Majumbar has dedicated Chapter 3 of his text on Ayurveda to the discussion of the principles of the three Tridoshas. The Tridoshas, which are Vāta, Pitta, and Kapha are the backbone of the treatments in this healing system. They represent various aspects of the physiology of the body and are only present in living things. Vāta represents movement of blood and other tissues. Pitta is responsible for memory and the heat of the body. Finally, Kapha solidifies certain tissues of the body, making them firm. The Ayurvedic healing system believes that the two elements, earth and ether, do not cause disease directly, therefore, only three elements are represented as the Doshas and are called Bhutas, or the three basic elements of nature; air (Vāta), fire (Pitta), and water (Kapha). The physiologic systems of the body such as blood, bone, and fat, are termed Dhātus. It is commonly understood, however, that the body is in constant disequilibrium, and so therefore the functions of the body are typically referred to as Doshas. Sometimes these Doshas can undergo a transformation and produce waste which is then excreted from the body in the form of feces, sweat, urine, etc. and this is called Malas.
Majumbar moves on to then describe the three Doshas more completely through the discussion of their locations within the body and the diseases and disorders caused by an imbalance between the three. To understand disease, one has to really understand the Doshas and their interactions with each other. Vāta, as stated before, represents movement, or air, and is known as the most important of the three Doshas as it sets the other two Doshas into motion. Vāta is located in the lower regions of the body such as; bladder, intestines, and legs. Pitta is responsible for metablising food to generate heat, which can then generate energy. This is clearly associated with its natural element; fire. Pitta is situated in the abdomen and is also found in blood and muscles. Lastly, Kapha, which means cooling, is located in the upper region of the body (head and neck) and is responsible for the construction of cells and bones, helps with the healing process, and most importantly is the cohesive factor between fire and air. Without a frame, there would be no fire or wind. It takes on the natural form of water as it cools the heat from Pitta.
23. Ninivaggi, Frank John. 2008. Ayurveda: a comprehensive guide to traditional Indian medicine for the West. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 1-26.
Ayurveda’s mythological origins are from before the period of written documentation, and thus accurate dating of its origins remains uncertain. While the first documents (including the Rig Veda, which contains some of the earliest Indian medical content) began appearing around the middle of the fourth millennium B.C. in the area of interest, there are few written documents describing medical systems of the era in existence. However, the Vedas- a group of religious and philosophical writings- are among some of the earliest written texts known today, suggesting that Ayurveda may be among the oldest systematized forms of medicine. Ayurveda is inextricably linked to both Buddhism and Hinduism, and is said to have been revealed by the Hindu god of creation Brahma, denoting its divine origins. After King Ashoka became the emperor of the Maurya kingdom of northern India in 200 B.C., the dissemination of Ayurveda was facilitated and became widely practiced in India. Throughout the next few millennia, a number of deified Ayurvedic physicians wrote important texts on Ayurvedic techniques and principles that remain indispensable sources of knowledge. After gaining independence from the British (who abolished nearly all schools teaching Ayurveda during their occupation), there was a national resurging interest in traditional Indian culture, and 1946 saw a formal governmental recognition and reacceptance of Ayurveda as a legitimate system of medicine. Since then, many schools devoted to teaching Ayurveda have been constructed, and Ayurveda enjoys widespread popularity in India and many other countries today.
24. Ninivaggi, Frank John, and Frank John Ninivaggi. 2008. Ayurveda: a comprehensive guide to traditional Indian medicine for the West. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 29-57.
The sages of the Vedic ages were believed to be intimately involved with the divine, and as such, their wisdom reflected such divine understanding. From the sages of this wisdom was Ayurveda supposedly born, divinely incepted and conceived. A few disciples of these sages became famous practitioners of Ayurveda and consequently wrote some of the earliest compilations of Ayurvedic philosophy and methods (Charaka, Sushruta, etc.). Over the centuries, Ayurveda has influenced and been influenced by the various philosophical and religious traditions such as Hinduism, Yoga, and Buddhism; since Ayurveda is the art of living life and not only cures for diseases, it must necessarily be intertwined religious and philosophical teachings. As such, it takes a much more holistic approach to healing by providing cures for ailments as well as prescriptions for how to lead a healthy life and live it well. One of the most important aspects of Ayurveda is the emphasis of consciousness and how this ties into reality. Firstly, Ayurvedic worldview is unitary, where no part of the totality of existence is disconnected from another. Second, constant interaction among the three regulatory principles of life (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha) and with the five great elements (ether, air, fire, water, and earth) is what determines the state of one’s health. There are two basic principles of treatment used to interact with the three doshas: Samanya (like increases like) and Vishesha (opposites balance to cure one another). One unique aspect about Ayurveda is that the three doshas are not specifically bound to the body, rather involving the holistic mind-body entity or psychophysiological functioning. It is this holistic view that allows Ayurveda to function as a prescription for one’s life rather than their body only, emphasizing the achievement of a dynamic balance and equilibrium in all aspects of one’s existence.
25. Obeyesekere, Gananath. 1970. "Ayurveda and Mental Illness". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 12 (3): 292-296.
Obeyesekere’s article is in response to Jerrold Levy’s critique of his previous article, Sanni Demons, dealing with Ayurvedic medicine. Levy challenges the validity of Ayurveda and its ability to serve both mental and physical health and Obeyesekere responds with this article, "Ayurveda and Mental Illness". This articles focuses on the doctrine of Ayurveda, its practices, and its effects. The main focus on the article is that there is a difference between mental and physical illness and he shows this by referencing the eight branches of traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The article has a few quotes from Susruta that provide extra evidence to prove that in this written history of Ayurveda there is a distinction between mental and physical health. With the eight branches and Susruta’s knowledge we learn that Ayurveda is actually capable of prescribing cures for illnesses, both physical and mental. The article sites Apasmara (epilepsy) and Unmada (madness) as examples of illnesses that may be due to the excess of bile, phlegm, or air. Obeyesekere’s main argument is that Ayurveda is a system of physical medicine that has two main and separate components: mental and physical health. Ayurvedic medicine uses symptomatology, and by interpreting the symptoms of the illness a cure can be derived. There is one specific ‘hospital’ in Nillammahara, which is outside of Colombo, where doctors treat patients with physical medicine and it is known for its treatments. Contemporary Ayurvedic doctors continue to use the tenets of symptomatology and continue to teach these techniques because they have been so successful. Ayurveda is compared to ritual specialists because of its linkage to Buddhism and the influence of culture. Ritual specialists also depend on the interpretation of symptoms to help determine illnesses. The use of symptomatology has been beneficial and will continue to strengthen Ayurvedic medicine.
26. Rastogi, Sanjeev. "Building bridges between Ayurveda and Modern Science." International Journal of Ayurveda Research 1, no. 1 (January 2010): 41-46. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed May 17, 2011).
It is argued by Rastogi that the beginning of the 21st century was supported with a much more open-minded attitude concerning eastern healthcare philosophies and practices. Previously, western ideals have typically stuck up their noses in light of methods like Ayurveda, but on the eastern front, medical schools have been attempting to combine science and Ayurveda for years. Because these concepts and philosophies are so complex, it is easy to understand why the lack of communication between the two methods has led to a concrete barrier in the West. But recently, some pro-Ayurveda individuals have been attempting to bridge the gap between these two methods by creating a mutually understandable language, while maintaining all original contexts.
One key ingredient to this cohesion is that both the biomedical model and Ayurveda have a very similar belief and understanding of the evolution of earth. The theory used in this article is termed the biopoiesis theory which dictates that life on earth is the product of a transition from biological monomers, to polymers, to cells. Ayurveda’s understanding of life is quite similar; everything that is living had to arise from something that was already living, through a number of intermediates. Ayurveda also believes that earth contains Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas which in turn symbolize energy, movement, and the ability to convert into new forms of being. Once life becomes visible it is called Mahabhuta, and interestingly enough, there are five forms of Mahabhuta which are related to the five elements of matter. Furthermore, the concept of the Tridoshas brings the Mahabhuta theory into practice as it represents the functions of the body. The concept of the Tridoshas can then be applied to assessing one’s overall health and to assessing medicinal materials. Rastogi continues to discuss these concepts in detail, but concludes with a calling for modern medical technology to further assess and validate the efficacy of Ayurveda so that they can be integrated into the western health care system.
27. Satow, Yumi E., Praveena D. Kumar, Adam Burke, and John F. Inciardi. 2008. "Exploring the Prevalence of Ayurveda Use Among Asian Indians". The Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1249-1253.
This article suggests that complementary and alternative medicine has become increasingly common in the United States. This may reflect a need to fill gaps in conventional Western medical care such as a need for improved therapeutic efficacy, greater cultural or linguistic relevance, and alignment with personal beliefs. A 2002 survey found that 36% of the US adult population had used complementary and alternative medicine in the past year. Ayurveda has had growing popularity in the West, but there is still no national training standards or licensed physicians for Ayurveda. This means that the form of use is home-remedy or self-care, not provider recommended of prescribed. Recently, there has been a growing Indian population in the United States, as more Asian Indians immigrate to the States. This article suggests that some immigrant prefer traditional medicine, as they believe Western medicines do not cure disease, but merely provide temporary relief from symptoms. An exploratory study was conducted to bring light on the use of Ayurvedic products and practices by Asian Indians in the Unites States. The study consisted of 64 participants in Northern California. The results showed that 93.8% had heard of Ayurveda and 59.4% had used or were currently using Ayurvedic products or practices. However, only 18% of those who use Ayurveda tell their physicians. These finding suggest a need for greater awareness of the Ayurveda system and a need to educate health care providers who work with Asian Indian populations. Especially since greater use of Ayurveda can be anticipated, due to an increased immigration of Asian Indians to the United States, and a growing interest in complementary and alternative practices including Ayurveda by the general public. There is also a recognized need for additional evidence- based research on the use of Ayurveda.
28. Sharma, Hari, H.M. Chandola, Gurdip Singh, and Gopal Basisht. 2007. "Utilization of Ayurveda in Health Care: An Approach for Prevention, Health Promotion, and Treatment of Disease. Part 1: Ayurveda, the Science of Life". Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. 13 (9).
This article opens by demonstrating how allopathic medicine has fallen short of its objective of health for all by citing some staggering health statistics: in the year 2000, 171 million people had diabetes, 22 million had cancer, and 17 million people die from cardiovascular disease as well as millions of other iatrogenic sicknesses and deaths. The greatest attribute of Western medicine is its ability to deal with acute medical crises; however, Ayurvedic philosophy reveals a superficial and incomplete understanding of underlying pathology (especially of chronic diseases), which accounts for the above statistics. As well, the system in which Western medicine must operate excludes extremely large numbers of people, often along social and financial lines; incidentally, traditional and alternative medicines remain their main source of healing. After a period of repression during the colonial period, Ayurveda has been revived. Congruently, Western medicine is increasingly being used to validate Ayurvedic methods. It is hoped that the strengths of traditional medicine, given credence by Western science, will be combined with those of allopathic methods in order to best serve the needs of all people (rather than only those who can afford it).
One of the greatest strengths that Ayurveda has to offer is its holistic approach to healing, as it is a way of life. Three doshas are held to govern physiology; however, the three doshas are considered to be universal principles that function in all aspects of life. In this manner, Ayurvedic philosophy connects the human body with the whole of existence, and treatments consequently come in many different forms. In Ayurveda, the loss of contact to a unified field of pure consciousness, which is why meditation (which attempts to reestablish this connection) is so central to Ayurvedic healing.
29. Sharma, Hari M., and Christopher Clark. 1998.Contemporary Ayurveda: medicine and research in Maharishi Ayur-Veda. New York: Churchill Livingstone. 1-6.
During India’s colonial era, Ayurveda suffered greatly due to its active suppression by the British. As a result, the system became very disordered by varying standards of quality and conflicting practices and opinions. When independence was gained in 1947, however, a surge of national pride served as the catalyst of its full revival. In particular, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi was an instrumental figure in its rejuvenation, especially in the past few decades. He was an avid supporter of the integration of Ayurveda into contemporary medicinal systems and developed a modern variation of Ayurveda called Maharishi Ayur-Veda (MAV), which emphasizes Transcendental Meditation (TM) as a central mode of healing. This particular branch of Ayurveda has been carefully researched by many scholars over the past couple of decades, and its modern interpretation makes it better adapted to other contemporary medical systems and clinics, such as biomedicine. The authors demonstrate the need for a ‘new model’ of Western medicine, as the way it exists today (indicated by the current ‘iatroepidemic’) is falling quite short of our needs. MAV emphasizes a holistic approach to healing, has a more comprehensive view of ‘health’ as a positive entity, provides a detailed concept of what ‘normal’ health is, and offers more effective preventative medicinal practices. A main critique of Western medicine given in this chapter is the tendency to treat symptoms of a disease rather than attempting to solve the core problem; one of the specialties of Ayurveda and MAV alike is determining the root cause(s) of an illness. This is one example of the many ways in which Western medical philosophy could benefit from the integration of Ayurveda. Furthermore, Ayurveda is not simply a science of medicine, but it also describes the art of living and being.
30. Wujastyk, D. 1998. The Roots of Ayurveda: selections from Sankskrit medical writings. New Delhi: Penguin Books. 1-38.
In his discussion of the historical context of Ayurveda, Wujastyk suggests that India may have been among the first to develop an institutionally-based, organized system of medical provision, citing a passage from the travel accounts of Chinese Bhuddist pilgrim Fa Hsien. Ayurveda has its roots in thousands of years of medical pluralism in India, and as such, it utilizes a variety of approaches to treating an illness and is quite holistic in comparison to other systems of healing. Encompassing both preventive and prescriptive aspects, it provides practical advice on most aspects of life, but also includes specialized areas of knowledge. The foundations of Ayurvedic healing principles are centered around three main conceptual categories: humors, body tissues, and waste products. A thorough understanding of all of the many subdivisions of these three categories is essential for providing effective treatments in the system of Ayurveda, but one general rule of thumb that is apparent in all classic Ayurvedic texts is the emphasis of moderation in everything (food, sleep, exercise, sex, medicines, etc.) as a means to achieve balance in one’s life (which is essential to healthy living).
